Energy storage technologies have been rapidly evolving, driven by the growing demand for renewable energy integration and grid stability. Among the most cost-competitive technologies, lithium-ion batteries have emerged as a frontrunner. Their widespread use in electric vehicles has led to significant economies of scale, contributing to a reduction in costs. Moreover, advancements in battery chemistry, manufacturing processes, and materials have further enhanced the performance and cost-effectiveness of lithium-ion batteries. Beyond lithium-ion, pumped hydro storage remains one of the most established and cost-effective forms of grid energy storage. This technology utilizes surplus electricity to pump water to a higher elevation and releases it to generate power during periods of high demand. Pumped hydro projects benefit from their long lifespan and high efficiency. Innovative technologies such as flow batteries, which use liquid electrolytes stored in external tanks, are gaining att...